• Ornithogallum

• Menispermum

GENUS: Lobelia

Lobelia inflata L —Indian tobacco

Lobelia spicata Lam.—Lobelia

Although this family is mainly tropical, several members occur in Pennsylvania. The plants contain acrid, milky sap; leaves: alternate, simple, entire. toothed or pinnately parted; calyx: Slobed; corolla: irregular, 2-lipped, 5-lobed, the tube split nearly to the base on one side; stamens: 5; anthers: united into a tube around the style; ovarv: inferior, 2- to S-celled; fruit: a capsule.

PHENOLOGY: Lobelias generally flower July through September.

DISTRIBUTION: Lobelias are found in wet soil, along streams, ponds, shores, and in swamps. They are also cultivated for garden use.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: In Lobelia the corolla is characteristically split to the base on the upper side; bilabiate, having 2 lobes above and below, the upper lobes erect, the lower lobes usually spread; stamens: protrude through the split in the corolla; the 2 lower stamens bearded at the tip; inflorescence: a terminal bracteate raceme, flowers alternately inserted; leaves: decurrent.

POISONOUS PARTS: All parts of Lobelia are poisonous. Lobelia is toxic to animals at 0.5% of body weight.

SYMPTOMS: Toxicosis develops within 3 days. In livestock, symptoms are sluggishness, salivation, diarrhea, anorexia, ulceration around the mouth, nasal discharges, and eventually coma. Also, lesions of hemorrhage and mild gastroenteritis may be present. In humans, symptoms include vomiting, sweating, pain, paralysis, depressed temperature, rapid but weak pulse, collapse, coma, and death.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLE: Toxins are pyridine alkaloids, especially lobeline.

CONFUSED TAXA: Lobelia cardinalis, a tall (I m) perennial of stream banks, produces red flowers in late summer. Lobelia inflata is a tall (to 1 m in moist ground, much less in dry habitats) annual, which produces pale blue to white flowers July through October, The hypanthium (calyxtube) is much inflated in fruit. Lobelia spicata is a perennial resembling L. inflata but not developing a bladder-like hypanthium. At least a dozen species and varieties of Lobelia are elements of Pennsylvania's flora. All should be considered poisonous, with perhaps L. inflata the most toxic. Cultivated taxa include L. erinus L. (edging lobelia), L. x Gerardii Chab, & Gonj, ex Sauv., L. siphilitica L, L. x speciosa Sweet, and L. tenuTor R. Br.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: Humans and livestock are susceptible.

TREATMENT: (11a)(b); (26); (6) (5- at the rate of 2 mg IM as needed)

OF INTEREST: Lobelia inflata is the source of the alkaloid lobeline used medicinally as a respiratory stimulant and in veterinary science as a respiratory stimulant and ruminatonic.

GENUS: Lolium

Lolium temulentum L - Darnel

This huge, economically important group contains several hundred genera and many thousand species. All of the world's food grains belong to this family, as do bamboo, lawn and turf species, sugar cane, and many other plants vital to humans. Very few species are poisonous. Foxtail grass (Setaria spp,) and squirreltail (Hordeum jubatum L ) have hard, sharp, floral parts that produce mechanical damage to the eyes, mouth, and digestive system of livestock; others host parasitic fungi that produce toxins (see Claviceps).

Flowers in the grass family are highly modified and require special terminology. The basic reproductive unit is a floret, consisting of a flower having either male or female (or commonly both) parts, the stamens and ovary, and scales, the lodicules. In addition to the flower, the floret contains lemmas (bracts) and palea (a bract). The collection of florets constitutes a spikelet that can easily be recognized by one, or more often two, bracts called the glumes. The grass leaf is modified into leaf sheath, ligule, and blade The sheath is the base of a grass leaf originating from a stem node. The blade is the flat, foliar, free portion of the leaf. The ligule is an outgrowth between the leaf sheath and blade. The vast diversity in size, shape, and arrangement of the reproductive and vegetative organs is used to distinguish grass species. Grass characteristics include, the flower: 3-merous; leaf veins: parallel; stamens: (1-) 3 (-6), separate, filaments slender; ovarv: superior, 1-celled, 1-seeded; styles: (1) 2 (3), usually featherlike; fruit: achene. an indehiscent seedlike structure sometimes permanently enclosed between the lemma and palea.

PHENOLOGY: Lojium temulentum flowers June through August.

DISTRIBUTION: This weed of grain fields and waste places is uncommon in Pennsylvania. Distribution records indicate sporadic occurrence in the southeastern corner of the state.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: Darnel is an annual grass with stems: solitary or a few clumped together, 4-8 dm tall; blades: glabrous beneath, scabrous above, 3-9 mm wide; spike: 1-2 dm; spikelets: placed edgewise to the rachis, 5-8 flowered; glume: firm, straight, 5-7 nerved, equalling or surpassing the uppermost lemma, 12-22 mm; lemmas: obtuse, awned, or awnless.

POISONOUS PARTS: The seeds and seed heads are considered poisonous.

SYMPTOMS: In humans, darnel poisoning is characterized by the sensation of intoxication, ataxia, giddiness, apathy, various abnormal sensations, mydriasis, nausea, vomiting, gastroenteritis, and diarrhea. It is rarely fatal.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLES: The alkaloids temuline and loliine possibly are responsible for toxicity of darnel. It also has been suggested that toxicity may be due to a parasitic fungus living within the seed head.

CONFUSED TAXA: The nontechnical characters in the illustration should readily distinguish darnel from the numerous other grass species found in Pennsylvania. The linear leaves have narrow horns (auricles) at the sheath-blade junction; the ligule is membranous and truncate; the spike is rigid, 5-40 cm long, and composed of 5-15 spikelets each 8-26 mm long.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: Though cases of darnel poisoning are rare, humans and livestock are susceptible.

TREATMENT: ( l l a)(b); (26)

GENUS: Lupinus

Lupinus perennis L—Wild lupine

PHENOLOGY: Lupinus perennis fiowers in late spring from April into July.

DISTRIBUTION: Wild lupine is found in Pennsylvania in a diversity of habitats ranging from dry open woods and clearings to moist sandy soil.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: Wild lupine is an erect, perennial shrub: 2-6 dm tall, thinly pubescent; leaves: palmately lobed; lower leaves: 5 cm long, 7-11 leaflets; petioles: 2-6 cm; racemes: erect, 1-2dm, numerous, blue varying to pink or white flowers; flowers: 2-lipped; calyx: the upper lip. 4 mm, 2-toothed; the lower entire, 8 mm; corolla: standard, 12-16 mm, half as wide; wings united toward the summit; stamens: 10, monadelphous; filaments forming a closed tube for half their length; pod: pubescent, 3-5 cm long, oblong, flattened

POISONOUS PARTS: The foliage and seeds are considered poisonous. The vast literature on toxicity of Lupinus spp. mainly involves western taxa, e.g rangeland species. Toxicity may vary among species, produce different symptoms in various classes of livestock, and fluctuate according to season and habitat.

SYMPTOMS: The reactions to ingestion are paradoxical. Some animals show depression, others excitation. Respiratory problems generally develop with labored breathing, coma or convulsions, and death.

Postmortem: No distinctive lesions are seen in American cases of lupine poisoning Pregnant cows, pastured in areas of lupine growth, can bear calves afflicted with arthrogryposis, scoliosis, torticollis, and cleft palate. Postmortem in mycotoxin-induced European lupinosis shows gross lesions: signs of cirrhosis, liver and kidney degeneration, pulmonary edema, congestion of internal organs and gastrointestinal irritation; histological lesions: focal centrilobular and midzonal hepatocellar necrosis; hyperplasia of Kupffer cells and bile ductules; and hepatic necrosis and cirrhosis.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLES: The majority of the more than 20 alkaloids isolated from Lupinus are quinolizidine alkaloids with some piperidine and other components known Lupanine and lupinine are well-studied compounds from Lupinu;, spateine appears less well characterized. In Europe, the disease called lupinosis is attributable to mycotoxins produced by the fungus Phomopsis leptostomiformis, which grows on Lupinus species.

CONFUSED TAXA: Several species are cultivated for garden purposes, and many highly ornamental lupines have been developed through hybridization and selection. The "Russell" group, of uncertain parentage, is potentially toxic. The uninitiated gardener might confuse larkspur or delphinium (see Delphinium) with lupines. The three are distinct, however, as both larkspur and delphinium have spurred floral parts not present in lupines.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: In western rangeland sheep are more commonly poisoned by lupines than horses or cattle. No uncontested cases of lupine poisoning are known from Pennsylvania.

TREATMENT: ( 11a)(b); (26)

OF INTEREST: Because alkaloids remain toxic in dried plants, contaminated hay also is poisonous. Alkaloids are generally more concentrated in plants after flowering, perhaps due to higher concentrations in the seeds.

GENUS: Menispermum

Menispermum canadense L.—Moonseed

This mostly tropical group is not well represented in Pennsylvania. It includes twining, dioecious vines with leaves: simple, alternate, lacking stipules, palmately veined; flowers: small, inconspicuous, white or greenish, unisexual; sepals: not much differentiated from the petals, the outer series (calyx) longer than the inner series (petals); stamens: 6 (or more); ovaries: 3, separate; fruit: a drupe.

PHENOLOGY: Moonseed flowers June through July.

DISTRIBUTION: Found twining on other vegetation in moist woods, thickets and fencerows.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: Moonseed is a perennial woody climber, sepals: 4 to 8, longer than the 4 to 8 petals; male flowers: stamens 12 to 24; female flowers: with 2 to 4 pistils; fruit: a black drupe, with a whitish wax film at maturity; appearing in grapelike clusters; leaves: palmately veined with low, rounded teeth; leaf petioles: may be twisted at the point where they attach to the stem.

POISONOUS PARTS: Perhaps all parts of this plant are toxic, but the fruits, which hang in pendulous grapelike clusters, are especially poisonous. The rootstocks also contain bitter alkaloids.

SYMPTOMS: The symptoms of poisoning could not be found in the literature; death, however, has been reported from ingestion of seeds.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLES: Plants contain isoquinoline alkaloids, including dauricine that has curarelike activity. In fact, Amerindians use a South American member of this family, Chondodendron tomentosum Ruiz & Pav., as an ingredient in arrow poison. It is also a constituent in a muscle relaxer used by anesthetists prior to operations.

CONFUSED TAXA: The woody vine, dark clusters of fruit, and similar general leaf shape allow this plant to be confused with wild grape (Vitis L.), the fruit of which is edible. Moonseed can be distinguished from wild grape by closely comparing leaves and seeds contained in the fruit. Wild grape leaves have twenty or more blunt teeth, but moonseed leaves have fewer than ten broad, shallow, rounded lobes Grape has several slightly pear-shaped seeds within each fruit; moonseed has a single, flat. crescent-shaped (almost circular). grooved seed.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: Birds appear to safely consume the fruits of moonseed plants. Because its distribution is limited to woodlands, Menispermum canadense is unlikely to be a problem for livestock. Records indicate that some time before 1935 children in Cambria County, PA, mistakingly ate moonseed fruits and died.

TREATMENT: (11a) (b); (26)

GENUS: Mirabilis

Mirabilis jalapa L.—Four o'clock

Relatively few members of this family occur in Pennsylvania. A full description of the poisonous plant is given below.

PHENOLOGY: This perennial plant of warmer regions is cultivated in Pennsylvania as a garden annual. It flowers in the summer and is fragrant in the evening hours.

DISTRIBUTION: This widely cultivated plant occasionally escapes to roadsides and wasteplaces.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: Four-o'clock is a much-branched, erect plant growing to 1 m tall; leaves: ovate, opposite, deep green, the lower, primary ones petioled, acuminate; flowers: 3.5 cm across, red, pink. yellow, or white, often striped and mottled, opening in late afternoon or during daytime in cloudy weather; calyx tube: corollalike, 2-3 cm, 5-lobed at top, corolla: absent; involucre: 5-lobed, calyxlike, 6-8 mm at flowering; fruit: rounded at the summit, tapered at base.

POISONOUS PARTS: The roots and seeds are reported to be poisonous; herbage should also be considered suspect.

SYMPTOMS: Gastroenteritis, including vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain, are symptomatic.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLES: The toxic principles are unknown.

CONFUSED TAXA: No plant, native or introduced, is readily confused with four o'clock.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: Children have been poisoned from ingestion of fouro'clock roots and seeds. Livestock might also be susceptible.

TREATMENT: (11a)(b); (26)

OF INTEREST: Mirabilis jalapa has shown some potential as an anticancer chemotherapeutic.

GENUS: Narcissus

Narcissuspseudo—Narcissus L.—Daffodil

Only one genus of this worldwide family, Hypoxis, is native to the Commonwealth. Other amaryllis encountered in Pennsylvania, such as narcissus, daffadil, snowdrops, and snowflakes, have escaped from European introductions, Flowers are generally bisexual and regular bearing 6 perianth parts in 2 series; in some Narcissus a crown or corona is present; ovary: single, with I pistil; stamens: 6; fruit: a trilocular capsule.

PHENOLOGY: Daffodils are one of the earliest spring-flowering plants. In protected spots the bright yellow flowers appear in March and April.

DISTRIBUTION: Narcissus often escape from cultivation and may be encountered in dense colonies along roadsides, moist meadows, and clearings in the woods. Occasionally old homesteads, the houses no longer standing, can be identified by a row of daffodils in what is now woods.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: Floral scapes: 2-4 dm, nearly equalling the linear, parallelveined leaves; flowers: yellow, solitary, 4-6 cm wide; crown as long as the tepals, often frilled.

POISONOUS PARTS: All parts are poisonous, especially the bulbs.

SYMPTOMS: Severe gastroenteritis, vomition, purging, nervous symptoms such as trembling and convulsions, diarrhea, nausea, and death can result from bulb consumption. Irritant dermatitis also can occur when the needle-sharp calcium oxalate crystals, distributed in the outer layers of many Narcissus bulbs, pierce the hands of those working with them. The "wheals" are characteristic of the disease "bulb fingers," a symptom suggestive of histamine release.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLES: Active principles that cause poisonings are unknown.

CONFUSED TAXA: Several species of Narcissus are cultivated; the more common taxon is the daffodil listed above. However, the poet's narcissus, N. poeticus with a smaller white perianth and short (a fourth as long as the tepals) yellow/red-margined corona. also escapes. Narcissus incomparabilis Mill. (corona half as long as the tepals) and N. Jonquilla L. with 2-6 yellow flowers (24 cm wide) per scape also are encountered here.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: Small amounts of the bulb have caused human poisoning.

TREATMENT: ( 11a)(b); (26)

OF INTEREST: Some commonly cultivated members of the amaryllis family that contain alkaloids known to poison livestock include Amaryllis spp and Galanthus nivalis L. (snowdrops). In the Netherlands cases of poisoning occurred when the bulbs were fed to livestock as emergency feeds during World War II. Snowflakes (Leucogum aestivum L.). also cultivated and escaped in our range, should be treated with suspicion. Snowflakes produce galanthamine (as do some members of the genus Galanthus), which is used medicinally in Europe to treat myasthenia gravis, a muscle and somatic nervous system disorder.

GENUS: Ornithogallum

Ornithogallum umbellatum L.—Star-of-Bethlehem

PHENOLOGY: Star-of-Bethlehem fowers in May and June.

DISTRIBUTION: This species has escaped from cultivation into roadsides, meadows, and clearings in woods. It has been planted as a garden ornamental but is used less frequently now.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: Tepals: 6, separate, white with a broad green midstripe beneath; stamens: 6; perennial herbs from a truncated bulb; leaves: linear. basal, 2-4 mm wide flowering stems: leafess, star-shaped flowers are subtended by a small bract; fruit: a trilobed, several seeded capsule.

POISONOUS PARTS: Although the aerial portions of the plant are reported to contain toxic alkaloids, animals seem to graze on them without adverse effect. The small, white, onionlike bulb is toxic.

SYMPTOMS: Ingestion causes nausea, gastrointestinal upset, bloating, depression, and salivation.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLES: An unidentified alkaloid, perhaps closely related to colchicine, is responsible for toxicosis.

CONFUSED TAXA: Two species of Ornithogallum occur in the Commonwealth: O. umbellatum and O. nutans L. The literature reports O. umbellatum as toxic in the absence of information. O. nutans also should be considered poisonous. The following characteristics differentiate the two: Ornithogallum umbellatum flowers in May-June, has narrow leaves 2-4 mm wide, and an inforescence in which the lower flowers are on long ascending pedicels; O. nutans flowers in April-May, has leaves 4-8 mm wide, and equal pedicels.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: Children have been poisoned from consuming flowers and bulbs. Sheep and cattle have died from eating bulbs. Frost heaving of soil and plowing will bring the bulbs to the soil surface.

TREATMENT: (11a)(b); (26)

GENUS: Parthenocissus

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L ) Planch.—Virginia creeper

Parthenocissus vitacea (Knerr) Hitchc.—Virginia creeper

This family consists of woody vines climbing by tendrils; flowers: 4- or 5-merous; ovary: superior, 2-6 celled, surrounded by a glandular disk; fruit: a berry.

PHENOLOGY: Both species of Virginia creeper flower in June.

DISTRIBUTION: Virginia creeper is distributed on moist soil throughout northeastern United States.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: The vines can be recognized by the alternate leaf arrangement; leaves: palmately compound with 51eaflets; fruit: a black berry.

POISONOUS PARTS: The berries are suspected to be toxic.

SYMPTOMS: The toxicology of this genus is not well studied although poisoning and death in humans has been suggested in the literature. Possible symptoms include vomiting, diarrhea, and a feeling that bladder or intestinal discharge should occur.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLES: The toxic principles are unknown.

CONFUSED TAXA: The two species may be distinguished by the numerous adhesive disks on the many-branched tendrils of P. quinquefolia. The occurrence of adhesive disks on the few branched tendrils of P .vitacea is rare. Boston or Japanese ivy, P. tricuspidata (Siebold & Zucc ) Planch., a cultivated vine grown around dwellings, has simple, glossy, 3-lobed or 3-parted leaves. Poison ivy (see Rhus radicars) has compound leaves with 3 leaflets and is often confused with Virginia creeper.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: The berries have been implicated in the death of children. In one feeding study, twelve berries were deadly to a guinea pig.

TREATMENT: ( 11a)(b); (26)

GENUS: Philodendron

Philodendron—Philodendron

PHENOLOGY: Like Dieffenbachia and other aroids, philodendrons are cultivated primarily for their lush green growth; they seldom flower in cultivation.

DISTRIBUTION: Philodendron, a very common house plant grown for its foliage, is native to the warm regions of the Americas, including the West Indies. The genus has 200 species.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: Philodendrons vary considerably in appearance. Identification of the many species is complicated by differences in form and size of leaves between juvenile and adult growth stages, and by the vast number of hybrids that have been produced commercially. Young plants of many species have similar leaves and often are impossible to identify. Most philodendrons have climbing stems with aerial roots, although some may be erect and freestanding; plants: evergreen, perennial; leaves: alternate, large, thick and shining. entire to variously lobed or pinnatifid. The philodendron variations are too numerous to list in this brief treatment.

POISONOUS PARTS: All parts of the philodendron plant are toxic. Leaves and stems are dangerous when eaten in quantity.

SYMPTOMS: In addition to those symptoms described for Arisaema and Dieffenbachia, philodendron can cause mouth, tongue, and lip irritation. One researcher has reported 72 cases of "philodendrum" (sic) poisoning in cats, with more than half resulting in deaths. Symptoms included debilitation, listlessness, and kidney malfunction, although these were not associated with apparent pain.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLES: Aroid toxins, including calcium oxalate needles and perhaps proteins or amino acids, are responsible for toxicosis.

CONFUSED TAXA: The philodendrons can be informally grouped into four categories: trailing with slender, weak stems; stouter-stemmed vines with entire leaves; stouter-stemmed vines with lobed ("cut-leaf") leaves; and shrubby, nonvining ("giant"). Of the trailing type, P. scandens C. Koch & H Sello and P. cordatum (Vello) Kunth are commonly grown. Within the stouter-stemmed vine (entire leaves) category, P. domesticum Bunt is popular. Those stout vines with divided leaves include P. radiatum Schott and hybrids like P. x "Florida". Shrubby philodendrons generally are not encountered in homes in Pennsylvania; however, they are planted in tropical gardens, grown under glass in conservatories in the temperate region, and used in interior displays at shopping malls.

Other genera sometimes confused with vining philodendron are Pothos and Scindapsus; some "split-leaf" philodendron are actually Monstera and Epipremnum. Because the genera listed above also are in the Araceae, they should be considered potentially dangerous.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: Humans and house pets, especially cats, are susceptible to arum toxins.

TREATMENTS: Aroids, including Arisaema, Dieffenbachia, and Philodendron, can be treated similarly. General treatment includes: (6); (2 - diazepan i.v.); (11a) (b) except in severe swelling; milk, water, or antacids to dilute the calcium oxalate and to flush out and soothe the oral pharynx; analgesics (e,g. meperidine); (4 - effectiveness is equivocal); and maintenance of hydration (intravenous fluids).

Phoradendron serotinum (Raf ) M C Johnst.—Mistletoe

This family is characterized by semiparasitic plants, attached to trees or shrubs by haustoria, lacking ordinary roots, but having green (chlorophyllous) leaves and stems; leaves: opposite; flowers: inconspicuous; ovary: inferior; stamens: as many as and opposite the perianth-lobes.

PHENOLOGY: Phoradendron serotinum flowers from May through July.

DISTRIBUTION: An uncommon semiparasite, mistletoe can be found parasitizing several different species of deciduous trees in Pennsylvania woods. It can be purchased from novelty shops and grocery stores at Christmas time.

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS: This species of mistletoe appears as small shrubs, parasitic on trees; leaves: coriaceous, opposite, entire, oblong to obovate, 2-6 cm, blunt or rounded; stems: freely branching, thick, brittle; calyx: deeply 3-lobed; anthers: 3, sessile on the base of the calyxlobes; ovary: ovoid, with 1 subsessile stigma; flowers: small, in short axillary spikes; fruit: a white, mucilaginous berry.

POISONOUS PARTS: The berries are especially poisonous, but leaves and stems also are toxic.

SYMPTOMS: Gastrointestinal irritation, diarrhea, weakened pulse, and cardiovascular collapse have been reported in humans. Cattle have died after consuming mistletoe but have shown no symptoms or significant lesions.

POISONOUS PRINCIPLES: The toxins are pressor amines, beta-phenylethylamine and tyramine.

CONFUSED TAXA: The familiar Christmas mistletoe has no readily confused counterparts. The nomenclature of this species has been in question; some authors cite the plant as P. flavescens (Pursh) Nutt.

SPECIES OF ANIMALS AFFECTED: Humans and cattle are susceptible to the amines in mistletoe, Other animals, including livestock and house pets, should not be allowed to eat the leaves or berries.

TREATMENT: (11a)(b); (26); (19)

OF INTEREST: For some individuals the plant can be an irritant or cause dermatitis upon contact. The alkaloid tyramine, found in mistletoe, is a vasopressor, elevating blood pressure; it is classed as an adrenergic chemical. The American Indians used P. .serotinum extracts to stop postpartum hemorrhage.